A COUNTRY DEFEATED IN VICTORY

To understand the title of this paper you must be made aware
that the country I refer to is the United States. Very few
Americans are aware of the defeat of which it is my obligation to
inform you of. President Lincoln very wisely said and correctly
so, I might add, that:

"All the armies of Europe, Asia and Africa combined could
not, by force, take a drink from the Ohio, or make a track on the
Blue Ridge in a trial of a thousand years. At what point then is
the approach of danger to be expected? I answer, if it ever reach
us it must spring up amongst us. It cannot come from abroad. If
destruction be our lot, we ourselves must be its author and
finisher."1

Thomas Jefferson said: "I believe that banking institutions
are more dangerous to our liberties than standing armies."2

These patriarch's of our country understood the dangers of
banking and the men that controlled the banking institutions.
The enemy that defeated this country from the very beginning was
the debt created by the use of paper money instead of gold and
silver coin. The use of differing weights and measures caused
this country to fall prey to the international bankers. Prior to
the Constitution being written the States printed paper money to
finance the Revolutionary War. At the end of the war the new
United States found itself bankrupted by a huge debt. Our
forefathers made it clear because of their experience and those
of other countries that we should never use paper money again.

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1. THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, p. 346
2. THE DEBATE OVER THE RECHARTER OF THE BANK BILL, (1809)
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"I am firmly of the opinion that there never was a paper
pound, a paper dollar, or a paper promise of any kind, that ever
yet obtained a general currency [as money] but by force or fraud,
generally by both."3 (John Adams)

"A theft of greater magnitude and still more ruinous, is the
making of paper money; it is greater because in this money there
is absolutely no real value; it is more ruinous because by its
gradual depreciation during the time of its existence, it
produces the effect which would be proration of the coins. All
those iniquities are founded on the false idea the money is but a
sign."4 (Count Destutt de Tracy)

"If ever again our nation stumbles upon unfunded paper, it
shall surely be like death to our body politic. This country
will crash."5 (George Washington)

"That paper money corrupted the morals of the people; it had
diverted them from the paths of honest industry to the ways of
ruinous speculation; it had destroyed both public and private
credit, and had brought total ruin on numberless widows and
orphans...I apprehend these general reasoning will be found true
with respect to paper money: that experience has shown that, in
every state where it has been practiced since the revolution, it
always carries the gold and silver out of the country, and
impoverishes it."6 (C.C. Pinckney)

During the formation of the Constitution there were
pro-paper and anti-paper money advocates at work. The strongest
proponent for the use of paper money, and the establishment of
the first bank of the United States, was Alexander Hamilton.
Many of our forefathers, including Thomas Jefferson were against
the use of paper money and the establishment of a central bank.
The proponents for paper money said this would be more cost
effective and convenient than using silver and gold coin. Those
against the use of paper money said this would ruin the country
through debt, and plunge this country into bankruptcy, and make
the Americans subject to the bankers.

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3. THE MAKING OF AMERICA, p. 117
4. THE MAKING OF AMERICA, p. 116
5. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
6. THE MAKING OF AMERICA, p. 493, 494
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"If the American people ever allow the banks to control
issuance of their currency, first by inflation and then by
deflation, the banks and corporations that grow up around them
will deprive the people of all property until their children will
wake up homeless on the continent their fathers occupied."7
(Thomas Jefferson)

"On February 15, 1791 Jefferson wrote Washington to tell him
his objections of the establishment of a National Bank.
The bill for establishing a National Bank undertakes among
other things:
1. To form the subscribers into a corporation.
2. To enable them in their corporate capacities to receive grants
of land; and so far is against the laws of mortmain.
3. To make alien subscribers capable of holding lands; and so far
is against the laws of alienage.
4. To transmit these lands, on the death of a proprietor, to a
certain line of successors; and so far changes the course of
descents.
5. To put the lands out of the reach of forfeiture or escheat;
and so far is against the laws of forfeiture and escheat.
6. To transmit personal chattels to successors in a certain line;
and so far is against the laws of distribution.
7. To give them the sole and exclusive right of banking under the
national authority; and so far is against the laws of monopoly.
8. To communicate to them a power to make laws paramount to the
laws of the States; for so they must be construed, to protect the
institutions from the control of the State legislatures; and so,
probably, they will be construed.
I consider the foundation of the Constitution as laid on
this ground; That "all powers not delegated to the United States,
by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are
reserved to the States or to the people."
To take a single step beyond the boundaries thus specially
drawn around the powers of Congress, is to take possession of a
boundless field of power, no longer susceptible of any
definition.
The incorporation of a bank, and the powers assumed by this
bill, have not, in my opinion, been delegated to the United
States, by the Constitution.
Can it be thought that the Constitution intended that for a
shade or two of convenience, more or less, Congress should be
authorized to break down the most ancient and fundamental laws of
the several States; such as those against mortmain, the laws of
alienage, the rules of descent, the acts of distribution, the
laws of escheat and forfeiture, the laws of monopoly?"8

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7. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
8. WORDS THAT MADE AMERICAN HISTORY, p. 184
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What did Jefferson mean by the word mortmain? This is a law
that was passed prior to the Magna Charta. The reason this law
was created by the King of England was to protect his land. When
the Church gained status in England, the people began to will
their land to the Church in exchange for the promise that the
Church would pray their souls out of hell. The public lands
began to disappear so the King enacted this law to protect his
land. What the law in effect said was that no one could deed
land to the Church without a license from the King. This
definition was later extended to include corporations. Jefferson
said that because we were the sovereigns, Congress was subject to
us, they had no right to give a corporate charter to the Bank of
the United States placing our land in dead hands (unable to be
purchased again by the public), since Congress had not been given
this power under the Constitution. Any powers not given to
Congress by the Constitution were reserved by the several States
and the American People. Jefferson knew that if this charter was
given, the public lands would soon belong to the Bankers. As
Thomas Jefferson said, this was a most ancient and fundamental
law of the Thirteen States. Can our land be reclaimed by the law
of mortmain? I don't know yet, but it bears looking into. Only
sovereigns, that are Sui Juris, Freemen and Freeholders of their
property, can bring such a suit. I know from studying
Blackstone's writings on mortmain that only a freeman has a
remedy and can bring the common law writ of Quo Warranto. Quo
Warranto means:

"A writ brought before a proper tribunal, to inquire by what
warrant a person or corporation exercises certain powers."9
(Blackstone Commentaries)

Upon ratification of the Constitution, it had appeared that
those who opposed paper money had won. The money clauses of the
Constitution made it unlawful to coin anything except gold and
silver. However, there was a fatal flaw in the Constitution.
The words of the Constitution were twisted by lawyer legalize,
and

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9. BLACKSTONE COMMENTARIES, book III, p. 1840
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power was claimed by Congress, that was not granted to them by
the Constitution or the men that wrote the Constitution.
Congress was granted exclusive jurisdiction over the District of
Columbia and its territories, no more, no less. It will be shown
in this paper, how Congress extended by legislation its territory
to include the fifty States. Imagine the District of Columbia as
a umbrella and that Congress opened this umbrella in order to
cover the fifty States.

"To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever,
over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by
Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress,
become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to
exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent
of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for
the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other
needful Buildings; and...to make all laws which shall be
necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing
Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the
Government of the United States, or in any Department or Office
thereof". (Article One, Section Eight, Paragraph Sixteen and
Seventeen of the U.S. Constitution)

"The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all
needed Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other
Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this
Constitution shall be construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the
United States, or of any particular State." (Article Four Section
Three, Paragraph Two of the U.S. Constitution)

Hamilton suggested that the word proper gave Congress the
power under the Constitution to charter the Bank of the United
States. Thomas Jefferson said in disagreement that:

"The second general phrase is, "to make all laws necessary
and proper for carrying into execution the enumerated powers."
But they can all be carried into execution without a bank. A
bank therefore is not necessary, and consequently not authorized
by this phrase.

It has been urged that a bank will give great facility or
convenience in the collection of taxes. Suppose this were true:
yet the Constitution allows only the means which are "necessary,"
not those which are merely "convenient" for effecting the
enumerated powers."10 (Thomas Jefferson)

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10. WORDS THAT MADE AMERICAN HISTORY, p. 186
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Jefferson lost his debate with Hamilton concerning the
establishment of the Bank of the United States. Jefferson
believed the Constitution was a exclusive not a inclusive
document and was meant to be a restriction on Congress. This
began the legal precedent of Congress and the Courts claiming
power not granted to them by the Citizens of the States.
Jefferson and the other sponsors of the Tenth Amendment thought
this Amendment would be enough to check the power hungry
Congress, but they were wrong. Congress's assumption of
un-delegated powers made the following possible.

There were two governments created by the Constitution, the
following definitions will prove that one was bound by the
Constitution, the other was not.

The term "United States" may be used in any one of several
senses. It may be merely the name of a sovereign occupying the
position analogous to that of other sovereigns in the family of
nations. It may designate the territory over which the
sovereignty of the United States extends, or it may be the
collective name of the states which are united by and under the
Constitution.(fn 6) Hooven & Allison Co. v. Evatt (1944) 324 U.S.
652, 671, 89 L.Ed. 1252, 1267 Black's Law Dictionary, 6th Ed.

In exercising this power, Congress is not subject to the
same constitutional limitations, as when it is legislating for
the United States. ...And in general the guaranties of the
Constitution, save as they are limitations upon the exercise of
executive and legislative power when exerted for or over our
insular possessions, extend to them only as Congress, in the
exercise of its legislative power over territory belonging to the
United States, has made those guarantees applicable.
[Hooven & Allison & Co. vs Evatt, 324 U.S. 652 (1945)

The idea prevails with some indeed, it found expression in
arguments at the bar that we have in this country substantially
or practically two national governments; one to be maintained
under the Constitution, with all its restrictions; the other to
be maintained by Congress outside and independently of that
instrument, by exercising such powers as other nations of the
earth are accustomed to exercise.
It will be an evil day for American liberty if the theory of
a government outside of the supreme law of the land finds
lodgment in our constitutional jurisprudence. No higher duty
rests upon this court than to exert its full authority to prevent
all violation of the principles of the Constitution.
[Downes vs Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244 (1901)](Dissenting opinion)

Nothing in this Covenant requires or authorizes legislation,
or other action, by the United States of America prohibited by
the Constitution of the United States as interpreted by the
United States. (INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL
RIGHTS.) 102d Congress 2d Session, Exec. Rept. 102-23 January 30,
1992 (See: page 24.)

When President Washington agreed with Hamilton to create a
Bank of the United States this countries fate was sealed. With
Congress acting under its insular capacity, not restrained by the
Constitution or the Bill of Rights, their only concern then
became the furtherance of commerce, not the rights of Americans.
The actions of Hamilton were directly responsible for the defeat
of the American people. The American people over the course of
our history have seen the events that enslaved them without
realizing their enslavement, because their ability to buy and
sell was never taken away.

"Our rulers will become corrupt, our people careless... the
time for fixing every essential right on a legal basis is [now]
while our rulers are honest, and ourselves united. From the
conclusion of this war we shall be going downhill. It will not
then be necessary to resort every moment to the people for
support. They will be forgotten, therefore, and their rights
disregarded. They will forget themselves, but in the sole
faculty of making money, and will never think of uniting to
effect a due respect for their rights. The shackles, therefore,
which shall not be knocked off at the conclusion of this war,
will remain on us long, will be made heavier and heavier, till
our rights shall revive or expire in a convulsion."11 (Thomas
Jefferson)

The American people were unaware of the hidden intent of the
bankers and the liability and obligation for taking their money.
The American people were not aware of the diabolical plot to take
away their freedom, nor were they aware of the men responsible
for their enslavement. The purpose of this paper is to expose
and unmask the men behind the defeat and enslavement of the
American people.

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11. NOTES ON THE STATE OF VIRGINIA, query 17, p. 161, (1784)
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Who were these people? Why weren't the American people listening
to the encroachment on their freedom?

To deny the identity of these bankers would be to deny
history. It is not anti-semitic to reveal the truth, and the
factthat those behind the defeat of America are a few power
hungry Jews. True there are non-Jews involved, but the
controlling power are those that control the worlds finances.
This paper is impartial, it has not been colored for or against
any group of people. Jesus said: "Ye shall know them by their
fruits". The following pages are merely the fruits of our
history.

The first recorded Jewish settler in Manhattan was a man
named Jacob Barsimson who arrived early in 1654. He was an
Ashkenazic, or German Jew.

When the Jews came to New York, it was considered among such
families as the Roosevelts, the Van Rensselaers, the Goelets, and
the Morrises, not to be Jewish. The Sephardic families of New
York, descended from the St. Charles arrivals (also known as the
Jewish Mayflower), include the Straus', the Warburgs, the
Aldrichs, the Kuhns, the Loebs, the Lehmans, the Morgans, the
Schiffs, the Hendrickses, the Cardozos, the Baruchs, the
Lazaruses, the Nathans, the Solises, the Gomezes, the Lopezes,
the Lindos, the Lombrosos, and the Seixases. The Roosevelts,
Bayards, Van Cortlandts, and Rhinelanders were in the sugar
refining business. The Rhinelanders also sold crockery, and the
Schuylers were importers. The Verplancks were traders, and
Clarksons and Beekmans and Van Zandts were in the retail dry
goods business. The Brevoorts and Goelets were ironmongers, and
the Schermerhorns were ship chandlers. The Guggenheims are proud
to say that they started on foot and, amassed what may have been
the greatest single fortune in America. The only fortune that
may outweigh the Guggenheims' is that of John D. Rockefeller.
Records place Guggenheims in Lengnau in Canton Aargau in German
speaking northern Switzerland, as early as 1696. A document of
that year refers to "der Jud" Maran Guggenheimb von Lengnau" and
the family had probably come to Lengnau from a German town called
Guggenheimb (now Jugenheim), near Heidelberg. The Seligmans were
a major American banking family. Haym Solomon, who had come from
Poland, worked closely with William Morris and the Continental
Congress as a broker, and helped raise a particularly large sum
for the Revolution. For his services he was given the official
title of "Broker to the Office of Finance." Even earlier, Jewish
bankers had lent money to Lord Bellamont, a particularly
improvident eighteenth century colonial Governor of New York,
helping to keep the colony financially on its feet, and New
York's first Lutheran church was built with money advanced by
Jewish bankers among them Isaac Moses, who helped establish the
Bank of North America in 1781. These are some of the main
players (all of whom are Jews) in the deceit and treachery to
enslave all non-Jews in America, who I might add took them in
spite of their history that proceeded them. The facts that
follow expose what went on behind the scenes.

They have referred to themselves as "the One Hundred," as
opposed to "the Four Hundred." The One Hundred are a core group
of Jews with German roots, the Four Hundred are also Jews, but
are considered to be beneath the One Hundred in status and mental
ability. The Seligmans were the elite of the One Hundred. They
have been called the "Jewish Grand Dukes," The One Hundred
considered themselves to be the elite of the human race and that
all non-Jews are to be despised and are meant to be their slaves.
Their Jewish talmud (their religion) makes this fact clear.
Their arrival in America began in the 1600s.

As I said earlier, Alexander Hamilton was relentless in his
pursuit of establishing the first Bank of the United States and
the continued use of the international bankers money. Was
Alexander Hamilton who he claimed to be, a loyal American, or was
he an agent working for the international bankers? The only way
to find out is to examine known history. Alexander Hamilton was
born Alexander Levine, of Jewish lineage, in St. Croix, the West
Indies.12

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12. A SHORT HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN NATION, p. 95, 96
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After changing his name and his geographical situs, he entered
the United States military, he was a staff duty officer for
General George Washington. Hamilton emerged from the
Revolutionary War as a lieutenant colonel and on December 14,
1780 he married the second daughter of General Philip Schuyler's,
at the bride's home in Albany, New York. General Philip
Schuyler's influence in New York politics was great. The bride's
mother was Catherine Van Rensselaer, daughter of Colonel John R.
Van Rensselaer, who was the son of Hendrik, the grandson of
Killiaen, the first partroon.13 (Heir to Baron Van Rothschild)

As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton's foremost objective
was to make sure that there could be no doubt about the
determination of the United States to pay its just debts. On
January 14, 1790, he proposed that all outstanding loans be
funded
at their face value, even though many speculators would profit by
this. Some members of Congress, who as they voted for the funding
bill, were not unaware of the opportunity it gave them to reap a
rich harvest. It has also been reported that there are documents
in the British museum that prove Alexander Hamilton received
payment from the Rothschild's for his dastardly deeds. Could
this payment have been for his involvement in the establishment
of a foreign bank in this country, and for convincing Congress to
assume the States debts, which would have created a debt
obligation binding the United States government and the States to
the international bankers?

Alexander Hamilton boasted: "A power over a man's
subsistence amounts to a power over his will."14

Hamilton wished also to take over such of the debts incurred
by the States themselves for the cause of independence as they
had not yet paid.

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13. THE INTIMATE LIFE OF ALEXANDER HAMILTON, (1910)
14. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
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His object, again, was to place the States under such obligation
as to insure their support in the establishment of the first Bank
of the United States. The State's war debts amounted to over
eighteen million dollars, not all the States had debts to be
taken over. Thus started the political precedent of perpetual
debt and required contributions (taxes) to be passed on to those
not responsible for the debt. Nor were the obligations spelled
out to the State inhabitants.

Hamilton won the debate for the first Bank of the United
States when President Washington signed the senate bill. The
bank was to have a capital stock of ten million dollars, which
was for that time, a very large sum. Of this amount one fifth
was to be subscribed by the United States, and the other four
fifths by private individuals. Hamilton's Bank which had been
chartered for twenty years was allowed to run out in 1811 in
favor of the State banks. The Bankers could not stand for their
bank being closed. The House of Rothschild used their influence
over Britain to bring about the War of 1812. The War increased
the U.S. governments debt to such an extent that the taxes that
were collected were less than one third the amount to cover this
debt. The remaining debt had to be covered by loans that were
made by foreign bankers, by the end of the war the government was
virtually bankrupt. The State banks tried to bolster themselves
by issuing paper money in excessive amounts, which created land
speculation and a deflated dollar. Some members in Congress saw
no choice but to propose the second Bank of the United States.
In 1816 the second Bank of the United States was chartered.

"The new bank would have a capital stock of thirty five
million; the United States government should subscribe one fifth
of the stock, private individuals the other four fifths, and the
directors should be similarly apportioned; the bank should have a
monopoly on the business of the United States and the national
banking business; it might establish branch banks throughout the
several states; and it might continue in operation for a period
of twenty years."15

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15. THE FEDERAL UNION, p. 316
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It is obvious that the bankers had the Congress of the
United States and the American people through proxy over a
barrel. Congress agreed to give the bankers exclusive rights to
all business done in the United States. All loans were
guarantied by the American people with repayment to be made
through the payment of taxes. For the valuable privileges the
Bank was to enjoy, it was required to pay to the government of
the United States a bonus of one million and five hundred
thousand dollars. In 1818 the Bank of the United States began an
all out attack on the State banks in order to close them. The
Bank of the United States collected the paper money of State
banks, and after the State banks had paid out a sufficient amount
of specie (in other words their gold and silver deposits became
low), the Bank of the United States would demand payment in
specie for the paper money the State banks had put in
circulation. The international bankers knew that the State banks
only kept one dollar of gold and silver for every twelve dollars
of paper money that was loaned out by the State banks. The State
banks that were attacked in such a manner would then have to call
in their loans. Individuals who had borrowed from the targeted
banks would be forced to raise what they owed by selling their
property for whatever it would bring.16

It doesn't take a rocket scientist to figure out what the
bankers were up to. The above banking policy would eventually
pull all gold and silver out of the State banks, leaving them at
the mercy of the international bankers. This would also give the
Bank of the United States a monopoly in banking, removing any
competition. By bankrupting the State banks the international
bankers would destroy those Americans that had loans though the
State banks, the farmer, the business man and the land
speculators. The result, the transfer of this countries gold and
silver resources and vast amounts of this countries most
important asset, its land to the bankers.

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16. THE FEDERAL UNION, p. 330
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Those involved with banking became subject to the bankers through
these foreclosures at a National level. Who are these bankers
and how did they get a foothold in this country?

The Bank of the United States was operated by Nicholas
Biddle, a wealthy and aristocratic Philadelphian, the bank was in
a flourishing condition when President Jackson took office.
Biddle was employed by the Rothschilds, and he was a non-Jew.
When the bank failed in 1837 he was soon forgotten by the bankers
and died penniless and a pauper in 1844.

President Jackson represented the anti-bank sentiment by the
American people, Jackson said:

"I do not dislike your bank more than all banks, but ever
since I read the history of the South Sea Bubble, I have been
afraid of banks."

...The South Sea Company was an English corporation, chartered in
1711, with a monopoly on the Spanish-American trade. It
attempted in 1720 to underwrite the British national debt in
return for a guaranteed interest rate of 5 per cent. This
introduced a period of unbridled speculation, not only in stocks
of the South Sea Company, but in all sorts of stocks also. The
"Bubble" burst in November, 1720, with disastrous consequences to
a host of investors.17

Biddle made a number of Jackson men directors of branch
banks, but he was unwilling to subject the welfare of the bank
more fully to the hazards of questionable banking. His nervous
apprehension, however, led him to seek the favor of Congress in a
way almost equally open to question. In 1829 thirty-four members
of Congress found it possible to borrow a total amount of one
hundred and ninety two thousand dollars from the bank; in 1830
fifty-two congressmen borrowed a total of three hundred and
twenty two thousand dollars; in 1831 fifty-nine congressmen
borrowed a total of four hundred and seventy eight thousand
dollars. Huge amounts of money were also made available to
powerful newspaper editors, and it paid each year a generous
retainer to Daniel Webster, who,

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17. THE FEDERAL UNION, p. 386
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as the Bank's attorney and a member of its board of directors,
saw nothing improper in representing its interests both in and
out of Congress.

Webster persuaded Biddle to request for the recharter of the
bank before the election of 1832. Webster knew Congress would
pass the bank bill because of the loans that were made to many of
the congressmen. The bank bill passed and was promptly vetoed by
President Jackson, here is a portion of his veto speech, his
reasoning is sound:

"More than a fourth part of the stock is held by foreigners
and the residue is held by a few hundred of our own citizens,
chiefly of the richest class.... Should the stock of the bank
principally pass into the hands of the subjects of a foreign
country, and we should unfortunately become involved in a war
with that country, what would be our condition?...If we must have
a bank with private stockholders, every consideration of sound
policy and every impulse of American feeling admonishes that it
should be purely American."18

Nicholas Biddle the President of the United States Bank
said:

"This worthy President, thinks that because he has scalped
Indians and imprisoned Judges, he is to have his way with the
Bank. He is mistaken."19

On January 30, 1835: The bankers attempted to assassinate
their fiercest enemy, President Jackson. Richard Lawrence armed
with two pistols at point blank range, fired both pistols, both
of which misfired spoiling the bankers plans.
President Jackson said: "the Bank is trying to kill me, but
I shall Kill the Bank."20

With the reelection of President Jackson in 1836 he knew he
had a mandate from the people of the America. He feared the
power of Biddle in persuading the Congress, in order to head off
Biddle,

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18. WORDS THAT MADE AMERICAN HISTORY, p. 240
19. THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, p. 380
20. A SHORT HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN NATION, p. 177
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Jackson through his power given him under the Constitution
removed the money from the Bank of the United States and placed
it in the State banks. In order to accomplish this he had to
fire two Secretary of the Treasurers. Their successor, Roger B.
Taney of Maryland did not hesitate to issue the order to remove
the money.

Biddle shut off the flow of money to the State banks in
order to turn public against Jackson's polices against the Bank
of the United States. The State banks began to loan excessive
amounts of paper money, which again triggered land speculation.
The State bank loans increased from one hundred and thirty seven
million in 1829 to five hundred and twenty five million dollars
in 1837. The land speculation was so bad that the government
sales of public lands rose from four million acres in 1834 to
fifteen million in 1835, and to twenty million in 1836. Receipts
from public lands had contributed to the treasury only four
million eight hundred thousand dollars in 1834; but in 1835 this
item rose to fourteen million seven hundred thousand dollars, and
in 1836 to twenty four million eight hundred thousand dollars.
These banks had nothing better to do with the funds that poured
into their vaults than to lend them out again, and in far too
many instances the borrowers were mere speculators who bought
more land. Thus an endless chain was fashioned; payments made by
the speculators to the United States were deposited into pet
banks, then lent again to other speculators to buy more land,
then paid once more into the treasury, then redeposited, then
lent again, and so on in a vicious circle.

President Jackson decided the evil of this policy had to be
stopped. In July 1836 it was declared in the "SPECIE CIRCULAR"
that paper money could no longer be used to buy public lands, and
that specie (gold and silver) had to be used, this ended for a
number of years the purchase of land from the government. In
1835 the last dollar of public debt was paid off. In 1837 the
United States was in the middle of a depression, because the Bank
of the United States had removed the gold and silver from the
State banks, which meant they had no more specie money to loan.

1837 marked the end of the Bank of the United States, and in
1840 Congress passed the Sub-Treasury Bill. The only thing this
accomplished was to remove the middle man between the United
States government and the foreign Bankers.

August Belmont's (Schonberg) arrived in New York City in
1837, with the influence and backing of the House of Rothschild
behind him. He was a Jewish banker of German decent, he had
three sons Perry, Oliver H.P., and August Jr.. August Schonberg
(Belmont) went to Frankfurt at the age of thirteen to work as an
unpaid apprentice for the Rothschilds, the leading Jewish banking
house in Europe. It is said among the European Rothschilds that
Augest Schonberg was the illegitimate son of Baron Von
Rothschild. The reason I believe this to be true is because the
Jews are very clannish, they would not put a non-family member in
such a important position, nor would a non-family member have
direct access to Baron Von Rothschild.

Belmont married into the Perry family for their social
influence. The Perrys were not very rich, but they had all the
social contacts that Belmont wanted and needed, more than he
needed money. Caroline was the daughter of Commodore Matthew
Calbraith Perry, hero of the Mexican War and the officer later
credited with having "opened Japan to the West," and her uncle
was another naval commander, Oliver Hazard Perry, hero of the War
of 1812 and the Battle of Lake Erie.

The first thing New York society noticed about August
Belmont was that he had lots of money. It was Rothschild money,
and he used it extravagantly. As a financier with the funds of
the world's largest private bank at his fingertips, he was
immediately important not only to American companies but to the
United States Government, which was always running out of cash
and whose credit needed constant infusions from bankers. There
was one area in which August Belmont excelled. Its name was
Rothschild. Belmont was not known to be a spectacular,
brilliant, or even "interesting" financier. But men like J.P.
Morgan liked to work with the European Rothschilds, and August
Belmont, as their agent, was always there, helpful, collecting
his percentage on the money that passed back and forth.

In the panic of 1837 Belmont was able to perform a service
which he would repeat in subsequent panics, and which helped make
him a friend to bankers and to the United States Government. By
negotiating large loans from the Rothschilds, he was able to
shore up United States debtor banks. In other words, he was
able, thanks to the hugeness of the Rothschild reservoir of
capital, to start out in America operating his own Federal
Reserve System. Mayer Amschel Rothschild said:

"Permit me to issue and control the money of a nation and I
care not who makes its laws."21

In the years since his arrival Belmont had been so
successful at channeling Rothschild funds into the United States
Treasury in return for government securities that he was
rewarded, in 1844, by being appointed United States Consul
General to Austria, a move designed not only to provide Mr.
Belmont with prestige but also to place him close to the Vienna
House of Rothschild where he could be of further usefulness.
Things, of course, did not always go smoothly. When the State of
Pennsylvania defaulted on thirty five million worth of State
bonds held by British investors, including the Rothschilds,
Belmont, in Paris trying to place another U.S.Federal Government
loan, was icily told by Baron de Rothschild:

"Tell them you have seen the man who is at the head of the
finances of Europe, and that he has told you that they cannot
borrow a dollar. Not a dollar."22

In 1853 he had been made United States charge d'affaires at
The Hague, and from 1855 to 1858 he was the resident American
minister there.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
21. A DECLARATION OF FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCE, p. 22
22. OUR CROWD, p. 73
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Until the outbreak of the war, August Belmont had been
financial advisor to the President of the United States. During
the war's first months, Lincoln leaned on Belmont for Rothschild
money as heavily as Gitterman and the Quartermaster Corps leaned
on the Seligmans for uniforms. This placed Belmont in an awkward
position. Reflecting the general frame of mind in Europe, the
Rothschilds had grave doubts about the North's chances of
winning, and gave Belmont and the United States Treasury only
lukewarm and hesitant support. Lincoln's fund-raisers were
forced to look for new sources of supply, and found them in the
bond-selling efforts of such men as Joseph Seligman.

The recovery from the Panic of 1857 was as spectacular as
the panic itself. The bubble had no sooner burst than it began
to re-inflate. So much gold was pouring into New York from
California that gold held in New York banks climbed from eight
million dollars' worth in October to twenty-eight million two
months later, and a ten-million-dollar loan from the Rothschilds
made, via August Belmont, to bolster the credit of U.S. banks was
repaid the same day.

The Seligmans, who were a American banking house, had the
same mission as the international bankers. Both banking houses
were able manipulate the American people through so called bid
rigging. The bankers funded the North and the South.

William Seligman liked to say that he had predicted the
Civil War, and implied that the nice position the Seligmans found
themselves in as a result of the war was largely his doing.

At the outbreak of the war the United States Treasury was in
greater shambles than Fort Sumter. Southern banks had been
quietly withdrawing large amounts of funds on deposit in the
North. When Lincoln took office, he found his Treasury almost
empty. The Federal debt was increasing, and the American credit
abroad was disappearing. Conservative businessmen wanted no
deals whatever with the government. They considered it far too
risky.

Linton Wells, a former Seligman staff member, wrote that:
"Joseph Seligman, during a visit with President Lincoln,
"persuaded" Lincoln to put Grant in charge of the Union forces,"
which Lincoln of course did. These constitute sizable claims,
and subsequent Seligman generations have cooperated with, Wells
and W.E. Dodd (Dodd was Joseph's equal in selling bonds) in
carrying on the legend that Joseph Seligman won the Civil War by
paying for it. At one optimistic point, Joseph bought some Union
bonds for his own portfolio, then quickly became discouraged
about their prospects and wrote: "I am almost tempted to resell
the U.S. Stock which I bought and keep my hands clear of the
present degenerated American race."23 (Again this is what these
Jewish bankers thought about non-Jewish Americans.) His brother
James was more hopeful and wrote suggesting that the brothers buy
one hundred thousand dollars worth of Union securities for their
own accounts. Joseph turned him down, he said:

"Do not be afraid," he answered, "that the Government will
want no more money after the 1 June even if the South should have
been whipped so badly as to offer to make peace, the Government
will need hundreds if not thousands of millions yet, to pay for
claims of all description and for the purpose of emancipating the
Negro."24

This was one of the reasons for the Thirteenth and
Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution. By making the Negro a
United States citizen it would increase the debt of the United
States and further enslave the non-Jewish American through the
increased taxes that would have to be collected.

Morgan, Belmont, and the Rothschilds formed an axis of
financial power that Joseph Seligman was finding it increasingly
difficult to beat.

This much of Joseph's Union bond-selling is known. Early in
Lincoln's second administration, in 1865, William Fessenden, who
succeeded Chase as Secretary of the Treasury, announced a four
hundred million issue of new government notes.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
23. OUR CROWD, p. 90
24. OUR CROWD, p. 91
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Joseph Seligman headed a group of German bankers in New York who
wished to underwrite fifty million worth of these notes, but the
Secretary would not accept the terms of the syndicate.
Thereupon, the Seligman brothers took an active part in selling
these Federal securities themselves, and it is recorded that they
sold over sixty million worth. Remember these bonds were just
like the government created the money out of thin air. These
bankers knew that if they continued to underwrite these bonds
they would obtain a nation and its people for repayment.

Obviously, this was the moment for Joseph to put his great
plan to work. Within hours of Lee's surrender, Joseph had
summoned his brothers together to organize the international
banking House of Seligman. Under Presidents Lincoln and Johnson,
the Seligmans enjoyed excellent relations with three successive
Secretaries of the Treasury-Salmon Chase, William Fessenden, and
Hugh McCulloch.
When their old friend from Watertown days, Ulysses S. Grant, took
Presidential office in 1869, they had every reason to look
forward to the same preferential treatment. In the beginning the
possibilities certainly looked good. Grant appointed as his
Secretary of State Elihu B. Washburne, who as a Congressman from
Illinois had been one of the Seligmans' private clients. Joseph
had once purchased, in Frankfurt, two hundred thousand dollars of
U.S. bonds for Washburne, saying at the time, "There is no
necessity for you to send any Bonds as margin, as we require none
from you, dear Washburne." As soon as Washburne was appointed,
the Seligmans wrote him, gently reminding him of their past good
deeds, and offering their "full services" to the new
administration. But Washburne's appointment, it turned out, was
only a courtesy one. He held the post for only twelve days, and
was then made Minister to France. Grant replaced him with
Hamilton Fish, who was less a friend. Fish was the son of a
Revolutionary War officer whose father had been a friend of
George Washington's and whose mother was a descendant of Peter
Stuyvesant, who had once thrown every Jew in New York in jail.
Then Grant did a startling thing. He contacted Joseph privately,
and said he would like to make him Secretary of the Treasury, but
Joseph declined.

Daniel Drew, a large stock manipulator, was able to force
the price of Erie stock up and down at will. Why did Drew want
his shares sold in London and not New York? So New York wouldn't
find out about it for a while. Allied with Drew in his
operations were two other terrors of the age "Jubliee Jim" Fisk,
a former circus roustabout, and an ex-farm hand who became the
leader of the threesome named Jay Gould.

The Seligman firm, in Joseph's words, did "an enormous
amount of business" in the Gould manipulations of the Erie stock,
selling short for their own account whenever Gould or Fisk or
Drew sold short, as they did consistently, letting the three
men's operations provide the pattern for the Seligmans' own. In
almost no time, the Seligmans had let the name of their old
friend President Grant be linked with one of the most spectacular
and scandalous financial coups of the decade, Jay Gould's attempt
to corner the gold market.

On September 24, 1869 Gould began raising the price of gold
from one hundred dollars to about one hundred and forty five
dollars, meanwhile having gotten new freight contracts, at a
higher rate, for shipping grain on the Erie. Gold began to climb
as the Gould-Drew-Fisk group began buying, while the Seligmans,
acting as the trio's brokers, also bought for their own account.
Grant seemed to be falling into line perfectly, and gold did
indeed reach one hundred and forty five dollars. Then,
apparently, covetousness, one of Mr. Gould's most consistent
emotions took over, and Gould decided to let gold get a little
higher, to one hundred and fifty dollars before selling. At this
point Grant seemed to realize what was going on, and ordered his
Secretary of the Treasury to dump four million dollars in gold on
the market in order to bring the price down again. On what
became known as Black Friday, gold prices crashed. The price
fell in fifteen minutes from one hundred and sixty two dollars to
one hundred and thirty three dollars and many investors were
ruined. But it turned out, Gould had sold out at the top of the
market anyway, and so had the Seligmans. It was almost, or so it
seemed at the time, as though Gould and the Seligmans had been
given some advance warning of the Treasury's forthcoming action.
Had Grant tipped his old friends off? When Gould went to jail
for manipulation of Erie stock, the Seligmans, who had been
acting as his brokers, loyally guaranteed his twenty thousand
dollar bail bond and, with this action, more or less permanently
committed themselves to Gould. Joseph said, "let us thank God
that we have made no losses." Banks were in desperate need of
cash, and Joseph tried to persuade President Grant to deposit
government funds in private banks, even though, as Joseph
admitted, such a move would be "clearly illegal."

Gould and Drew and Jim Fisk were, from that standpoint, very
much in tune with their times. Gould admitted that he used
bribery and blackmail to buy up Erie Railroad stock options from
towns along his routes, and that he used Fisk's methods to take
over by force and violence when other methods failed. Gould,
furthermore, was by his own admission a raider and a ruiner. He
had no interest in managing or improving railroads. He merely
liked to drive a railroad's stock up, with rumors and with
trading, and then sell it and let it collapse of its own inflated
weight.

"Going back to interest rates, the Nation did not have
interest rate caps, or that is anti-usury laws until the 1865
National Currency Act. This was what was uppermost in President
Lincoln's mind at the time he was killed. He was concerned. He
could see what was happening. Of course, just a few years later,
by 1869 you had the same thing we have gone through in the wild
eighties, the wild speculators, the attempt of these predators,
like Jim Fisk and Gould to do such things as corner the bull
market through conniving to bribe President Grant's
brother-in-law and their total failure and inability to do it,
but which sank the country and created scandal after scandal, not
very different from what we have just come through in the
eighties in the S&L scandals"25 (Congressman Gonzalez)

In 1874 Joseph made a bid to Grant's new Secretary of the
Treasury, Benjamin Bristow, to handle the sale of twenty five
million worth of U.S. bonds.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
25. CHAIRMAN OF THE BANKING COMMITTEE, augest 6, 1993 on the
floor
of the congress, in SPECIAL ORDERS
-----------------------------------------------------------------

This plum seemed about to fall into Joseph's lap when Bristow
began to hedge. Bristow wanted, he said, "a stronger combination
of bankers" behind the loan, a syndicate, in other words. He
suggested "some strong European house," and though he did not say
so in so many words, his implication was clear, he wanted the
Rothschilds.

This Jewish Baron, when elected to the House of Commons, had
for eight years refused to swear his oath of admission unless the
Old Testament was substituted for the Holy Bible, and the words
"upon the true faith of a Christian" were omitted.26

Then, in the autumn of 1874, Baron Rothschild summoned Isaac
Seligman to his office to give him a piece of news. Some fifty
five million worth of United States bonds were to be offered for
sale, and the Baron suggested, the issue might be backed by a
combination of three houses-the House of Rothschild, the House of
Morgan, and the House of Seligman. For the first time, August
Belmont would act as agent for both the Rothschilds and J. & W.
Seligman & Company. Needless to say, Isaac accepted. The
Seligmans were now able to consider themselves the Rothschilds'
peers. The Seligman-Belmont-Morgan-Rothschild alliance,
furthermore, was so successful that by the end of the decade
there were complaints on Wall Street that "London-and
Germany-based bankers" had a monopoly on the sale of United
States bonds in Europe-which they did. Joseph Seligman wrote to
Richard C. McCormick, U.S.Commissioner General, to inform him:

"In filling the offices for Commissioners in Paris, please
do not omit to appoint Mr. William Seligman, of course as
Honorary Commissioner, without pay, as brother William is at the
head of a large American banking house in Paris and entertains
all nice Americans."27

-----------------------------------------------------------------
26. OUR CROWD, p. 154
27. OUR CROWD, p. 156
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Early in 1877 Sherman summoned a representative group of New
York bankers, including Joseph Seligman and August Belmont, to
Washington, and sent each into a separate room "to work out a
plan for refunding the balance of the Government war debt." Each
man submitted his recommendations, and a week later Sherman sent
for Joseph and told him that his plan was "by all odds the
clearest and most practical," and would be adopted. The plan
called for building up a gold reserve of approximately forty
percent of the outstanding greenbacks through the sale of bonds
for coin, something Joseph was good at. The plan worked so well
that within two years the dollar was quoted at par for the first
time since 1861.

In 1887 Senator Patterson, presiding over the investigating
committee wanted to determine how much pressure the banking firms
had exerted to swell public confidence in, and promote, the now
bankrupt Panama Canal Company. He asked Wright, "Was not the
moral and business influence of these three great banking houses
given to the enterprise?"
Wright replied hedgily, "In what respect?"
"As far as affecting public opinion in the United States was
concerned."
"I presume so," said Mr. Wright.
"Was that not sufficient, in a large degree, to mold public
opinion in favor of the Panama Canal Company?" asked the Senator.
"That," replied Wright with extreme caution, "I am not prepared
to answer."

Of course an honest answer would certainly have been "Yes."
It soon turned out that the Seligman-Morgan-Lanier alliance had
gone to considerable lengths to appoint men to the American canal
committee whose names would add luster and prestige to the
project.

The investigation unearthed the fact that Jesse Seligman had
offered his old friend ex-President Grant the chairmanship of the
canal committee at a salary of twenty four thousand dollars a
year-which Grant could certainly have used at that point. But
Grant declined the offer, and Jesse had then approached President
Hayes's Secretary of the Navy, Richard W. Thompson, who had
resigned his Cabinet post to take the job. Obviously, placing a
former Navy Secretary in the Canal Company was just the sort of
thing Senator Patterson was talking about. Thompson's duties for
the company were partly those of a lobbyist, a man who could
influence the opinion of Congress (and help persuade it to block
the progress of the Nicaragua Canal Company), and also to
strengthen the "image" of the company with the American press,
and to inspire the confidence of American Stock purchasers. When
Jesse Seligman was called before the investigating committee, he
proved a more straightforward witness. The entire Panama Canal
undertaking, he admitted, had been badly planned and riddled with
"corruption, fraud, and thievery."

Senator Thompson on the investigating committee was curious
about some of the appointments that had been made to the canal
committee, and asked Jesse, "Why was Mr. Thompson selected as
chairman? He was not a great financier, was he?" Jesse
replied,"No, but he was a great statesman and lawyer." "But you
offered the place to General Grant. Now he was a great soldier,
a popular idol, but he was not a great lawyer, or financier, or
great statesman, was he?" With a smile, according to the
Congressional Record, Jesse began, "Well.." Senator Geary
interjected, "There may be some difference of opinion on that
point." Sitting forward in his chair, Jesse Seligman said
calmly, "General Grant was a bosom friend of mine, and I always
look out for my friends."

Secretary Thompson said:

"In my official capacity as Secretary of the Navy, I have
had especial opportunities to understand and appreciate his
(Joseph's) character. My first intercourse with your (banking)
house was had through him, in the summer of 1877, soon after the
Department was placed under my charge. At that time, its
financial condition was seriously embarrassed, being indebted to
your house several hundred thousand dollars, which was steadily
increasing on account of drafts drawn by Naval pay officers in
all parts of the world, and which were accepted and paid by you
in London. It was impossible to discharge the whole of this
debt, or even any large proportion of it, without adding to the
existing embarrassment and causing serious injury to the Service.
When he came to understand this condition of affairs, he at once
proposed to carry the debt to the beginning of the next fiscal
year and to allow drafts to be continued until then without
regard to the amount. The proposition was liberal and in the
highest degree patriotic; and having been thankfully accepted by
me the Department was enabled to bridge over all its pecuniary
trouble. But for this, the injury to its credit and to the
Service generally might have been irreparable."28

And so for a while the Seligman brothers were personally
meeting the payroll of the United States Navy. The Seligmans
continued their influence over the United States government with
President Roosevelt:

"I (James Seligman) called on President Roosevelt and asked
him point-blank if, when the revolt broke out, an American war
ship would be sent to Panama to protect American lives and
interests (including Seligman interests). The President just
looked at me; he said nothing. Of course, a President of the
United States could not give such a commitment, especially to a
foreigner and private citizen like me. But his look was enough
for me."29

At one of the Seligmans' weekend retreats, it was never a
surprise to find a former U.S. President, a Supreme Court
Justice, several Senators and a Congressman or two. The
Seligmans' old friend Grant had, at their suggestion, bought a
summer home at Long Branch and was a frequent, if somewhat
unreliable, guest. President Garfield was another Seligman
friend. Once more the Seligmans were displaying their uncanny
way of getting to know the right people. Their friend Lyman Gage
later became Secretary of the Treasury under President McKinley.
He had, at one point, invited President Theodore Roosevelt to
speak at a banquet for one of his philanthropies, and Roosevelt
spoke of this 1906 appointment of Oscar Straus a Jew and heir to
the Macy & Co. fortune, to his Cabinet, saying:

"When this country conferred upon me the honor of making me
President of the United States, I of course at once called my
good friend Oscar Straus to my side, and asked him to serve as
Secretary of Commerce."30

-----------------------------------------------------------------
28. OUR CROWD, p. 257, 258
29. OUR CROWD, p. 260
30. OUR CROWD, P. 342
-----------------------------------------------------------------

In 1910 Paul Warburg and Nelson Aldrich (both were Jews)
together drafted the Aldrich Bill, the first to include central
banking as an element of banking reform. Paul Warburg had,
meanwhile, set up the National Citizens' League for Promotion of
a Sound Banking System. The Federal Reserve Board Act, largely
Warburg-designed, was passed in 1913, but the System was not
operative until 1915. Warburg resigned from Kuhn, Loeb in 1917
to serve on the Board. Paul Warburg said:

"Whoever controls the volume of money in any country is
absolute master of all industry and commerce."31

In 1913 the Pujo Committee disclosed that Kuhn, Loeb,
despite its excellent relationships with Morgan, had primarily
been allied with the Rockefeller-controlled National City Bank,
of which Jacob Schiff had long been a director, and therefore
that Schiff seemed to enjoy the best of both worlds.

Still, he was the most brilliant and versatile of all the
Warburgs and, for years, was a sort of itinerant Kuhn, Loeb
partner, spending half of each year in New York and the other
half with the Warburg bank in Germany, serving as a financial
liaison between the two countries. He had always considered
American banking primitive and haphazard. He had met secretly
with Senator Nelson Aldrich at Sea Island, Georgia, and had
worked out the Federal Reserve System, and yet when Aldrich tried
to give Paul Warburg full credit, Paul, typically, refused to
take any credit whatever. He was offered the post of Chairman of
the Federal Reserve Board but, insisting that he was unworthy,
refused any position higher than Vice Chairman.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
31. SITE NOT AVAILABLE
-----------------------------------------------------------------

"A great industrial Nation is controlled by its system of
credit. Our system of credit is concentrated. The growth of the
Nation and all our activities are in the hands of a few men. We
have come to be one of the worst ruled, one of the most
completely controlled and dominated Governments in the world --
no longer a Government of free opinion, no longer a government of
conviction and vote of the majority, but a Government by the
opinion and duress of small groups of dominant men."32
(President Woodrow Wilson)

Though certain members of the family, particularly from the
Philip Lehman branch, remain to this day scandalized by the
political career and affiliation of Herbert, and by his
retirement from Lehman Brothers, which some considered a breach
of family trust, most admit that he lifted the family name to a
position of national importance, and that his reputation for
integrity and efficiency, first as Governor, then as Senator,
cannot but have helped the bank.

There were many ironies in Max Warburg's life. Certainly
his special treatment began to convince him that he was somehow
specially equipped to handle "the Jewish question," as it was
being called in Germany. During World War I Max was financial
adviser to the Imperial Government of Germany, and at the war's
end he was appointed to a special committee to assist the German
peace delegation at Versailles.

But Max was too much of a German. When the German Republic
was coming into being, Max was offered his choice of two posts:
Minister of Finance or Ambassador to the United States, but to
everyone's surprise, he turned them both down. His main concern
became saving, if at all possible, the Warburg bank and
properties in Germany. To do so, he used his old connections
with the Kaiser and the imperial court to become a close friend
of the prominent Nazi, Hjalmar Schacht, president of the
Reichsbank, the German Federal Bank.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
32. PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON, (1916)
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Schacht often turned to Max for advice in financial matters, and
continued doing so for several years after Hitler came to power.
Through Schacht, Max became convinced that the Warburg bank would
never be seized and that he himself might be to Hitler what
Albert Ballin had been to the Kaiser, the court Jew. Alas, as
the months marched relentlessly onward, this possibility seemed
less than remote, particularly to Max's despairing brothers in
New York. A law of April, 1933, decreed that all Jews be
dismissed from government service and the universities, and they
were also barred from the professions. Yet a week later, Max
Warburg was dining with his friend, the Nazi Schacht.

After the war it was Eric Warburg who persuaded the Allies
to let the family bank in Hamburg resume operations, and he was
as of 1967, the senior partner in the Hamburg office, though both
he and his young son, Max II, remained U.S. citizens.

This brings us to the bankruptcy of the United States. The
Bankers continued to pull the gold and silver out of this
Country. In the early 1920's they were pulling massive amounts
of gold out of this Country. Then in 1929 you had the run on the
banks and the closing of the Bank of the United States and the
crash of the stock market. The following quote on MAY 23, 1933
describes the above crime:

On the House floor, Congressman McFadden brought impeachment
charges against many of the federal reserve board members,
federal reserve agents of many States, comptroller of the
currency, and several secretaries of the United States Treasury
for high crimes and misdemeanors, including the theft of eighty
billion dollars from the United States Government and with
committing the same thefts in 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932 and 1933 and
in the years previous to 1928, amounting to billions of dollars.
These charges were remanded to the Judiciary committee for
investigation, where these charges were effectively buried and
until this day have never been answered.33 (Congressional
Record)

-----------------------------------------------------------------
33. THE CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, p. 4055, 4058, May 23, 1933
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Thus the country entered into another depression. What were
the bankers objectives this time? They wanted more control and
more return on their money for the benefit of their loans. The
most amazing thing was that the American people stood by while
their slavery was made complete. In 1933 with a huge amount of
the gold supply taken by illegal means, President Roosevelt
willingly followed the bankers demands. The United States for
all practical purposes entered into Chapter 11 bankruptcy.

Congressman Traficant said on the House floor, March 17,
1993 that:

"Mr. Speaker, we are here now in chapter 11. Members of
Congress are official trustees presiding over the greatest
reorganization of any bankrupt entity in world history, the U.S.
government."

On March 10, 1933 President Roosevelt ordered that all
Americans had to turn in their Gold.

This was done by Presidential Executive Order, 6073 and the
subsequent Executive Orders, 6102, 6111 and 6260.34 [these
documents are still publicly attainable in any federal depository
library]

Marriner Eccles, then chairman of the Board of Governors of
the Federal Reserve System, in testimony before the Banking and
Currency Committee of the House of Representatives on the Banking
Act of 1935 Mr. Eccles testified:

"In purchasing offerings of Government bonds, the banking
system as a whole creates new money, or bank deposits. When the
banks buy a billion dollars of Government bonds as they are
offered-and you have to consider the banking system as a whole,
as a unit-the banks credit the deposit account of the Treasury
with a billion dollars. They debit their Government bond account
a billion dollars, or they actually create, by a bookkeeping
entry, a billion dollars."35

-----------------------------------------------------------------
34. PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT, EXECUTIVE ORDERS, 6102, 6111, 6260,
(1933)
35. THE MYSTERIES OF THE FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM, p. 3
-----------------------------------------------------------------

The theft of this countries gold was a down payment for the
bankers, they were also given complete control over the finances
of the United States. Another part of the deal was that the
United States was not collecting enough money in taxes to pay the
interest, so the American people had to be conned into entering a
social contracts that would make the American people legally
bound to the bankers in voluntary servitude, which is not against
the Thirteenth Amendment that states:

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except
as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly
convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place
subject to their jurisdiction.
Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
appropriate legislation

One of the contracts that was used to do this was the Social
Security Act. You would probably say that this is a Insurance
plan for your old age retirement. Is it? Let's examine what
takes place. Money is taken out of your wage reimbursement and
is supposedly put into a trust fund until you retire. What
actually happens is that this money is placed into the treasury
as your payment on the national debt and an IOU for this amount
goes into the trust fund. When you make a claim for your Social
Security benefits, the money is then borrowed from the bankers,
thereby perpetually increasing the national debt your children
will have to pay. This was part of the new deal, the United
States agreed to borrow every dollar the government uses from
these same bankers. When you receive a Social Security payment
from the government you have not received your money, you have
received further benefit from the government. If you'll look on
your wage check stub, you will find the initials F.I.C.A., which
is the amount that you pay for your supposed Social Security
insurance. What does F.I.C.A mean? It means Federal Insurance
Contribution Act. What about the word Contribution. Through
your public school training and the context in which this word is
used you would think it means your payment for your insurance.
Does it? What do lawyers, judges and the federal government say
Contribution means? You can find their definition in Blacks Law
Dictionary, it reads as follows:

Contribution. Right of one who has discharged a common
liability to recover of another also liable, the aliquot portion
which he ought to pay or bear. Under principle of
"contribution," a tort-feasor against whom a judgement is
rendered is entitled to recover proportional shares of judgement
from other joint tort-feasor whose negligence contributed to the
injury and who were also liable to the plaintiff. (cite omitted)
The share of a loss payable by an insure when contracts with two
or more insurers cover the same loss. The insurer's share of a
loss under a coinsurance or similar provision. The sharing of a
loss or payment among several. The act of any one or several of
a number of co-debtors, co-sureties, etc., in reimbursing one of
their number who has paid the whole debt or suffered the whole
liability, each to the extent of his proportionate share. (Blacks
Law Dictionary 6th ed.)

So you see when you went to the Social Security office and
asked for your Social Security number and you then signed the
Social Security application you said that you were a tortfeasor
and that you were equally responsible with the other tortfeasors
for the national debt. The bankers, in 1933 increased their
return on their money in several ways. First, what was just
covered, the Social Security scam. The money you pay out is a
tax, payment on the national debt. Second, once the gold was
removed in 1933 and the silver in 1967, the only money printed
was the bankers fiat money. The definition of fiat is as
follows:

"Money composed of otherwise essentially valueless things
that neither have a commercial use nor constitute a claim against
anyone, but do have a special legal qualification. The money is
not the material bearing the stamp as authority but the stamp
alone." (Blacks Law Dictionary 6th ed.)

When the bankers did this they further enslaved you. The
bankers have a total monopoly on the commerce in this country.
They have given you the privilege of discharging your debt
without actually paying your debts. Here is the definition of
discharge:

"Settlement of a debt is discharged and the debtor is
released when the creditor has received something from him. It
may be money or its equivalent. (Barrons Law Dictionary)

Contribution: "Right of one who has discharged a common
liability to recover of another also liable, the aliquot portion
which he ought to pay or bear." (Blacks Law 6th ed.)

Congressman Jerry Voorhis said:

"The banks -- commercial banks and the Federal Reserve --
create all the money of this nation and its people pay interest
on every dollar of that newly created money. Which means that
private banks exercise unconstitutionally, immorally, and
ridiculously the power to tax the people. For every newly
created dollar dilutes to some extent the value of every other
dollar already in circulation."36

The loss of your sovereign status has all been done by
contract. A contract can override any pre-existing law including
the Constitution of the United States. Your rights and your
sovereign status have been lost through the contracts you've been
involved in (in relation to your status) with these bankers.
Contracts do not have to be written down on paper. The contracts
you have been involved in (in relation to your status) for the
most part have been silent contracts. You can have a silent
contract as long as you have the three components of a contract
present, offer, acceptance and consideration. The bankers have
offered you fiat money which has no value. The benefit you
receive is that you can buy real property with this fiat money
without being put in jail for stealing. The bankers offered this
money through the government, you accepted and used this money
without objection, which proves your consideration. Because of
your acceptance and consideration of this silent contract
(without your objection), the bankers have a right to compel you
to preform to any stipulations that they might add to protect
their investment. Since you are the collateral (your labor)
which is the surety for the contract, they have a right to
protect you. That's why all these laws and acts of Congress came
about after 1933. Why do you think you have to have car
insurance, drivers license, building permits, seat belt
regulations and the coming Health Plan?

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36. CONGRESSMAN JERRY VOORHIS, (1934)
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These regulations are compelled performance, because you have to
comply as long as you receive the benefit of discharging your
debt, and if you refuse you can be locked away in jail for the
public welfare. Why? Because you might damage another
tort-feasor. This is just one benefit (silent contract) there
are many others that are offered through the government. I've
covered one which was the Social Security benefit. The benefits
offered by government serve another purpose, but to the same end.
They have been offered to remove any claim you might have had to
the Constitution and the Bill of Rights. This began when the
Fourteenth Amendment was passed.
Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of
the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State
shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges
or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any
State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without
due process of law; nor deny to any person within its
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United
States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment
of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection
or rebellion, shall not be questioned.

You would say that this was done to emancipate the Negro.
That's what you've been told, but that is not the only reason.
Remember at the beginning of this paper? Joseph Seligman told us
one reason, which was to increase the national debt. Another
reason was to create a federal citizen. The Negroes were given
their United States citizenship by Congress's enactment of the
Fourteenth Amendment. Anything that is created by government,
can be regulated and controlled by government, through its
insular capacity. Another reason was that part of the Fourteenth
Amendment made it illegal for a United States citizen to
challenge the Validity of the national debt. The government's
part in this was to offer benefits to the American people.
Thereby, making it possible for the American Citizen to become a
citizen of the United States. The acceptance of these benefits
changed your status from a large C Citizen (proper noun), to a
small c citizen, which made you subject to the government. If
you'll look at the Constitution you'll see that prior to the
Fourteenth Amendment, Citizen was a large C and after the
Fourteenth Amendment this changed to a small c. Another way your
status changed was by your signing government forms that used the
metaphor United States citizen. For example on your 1040 form or
W2 form or passport etc., you were asked if you were a citizen of
the United States (the word of in law means belonging to) small
c, because you didn't know the words United States was a
metaphor, you said sure and signed the forms. Even if you hadn't
received any benefits from the government you were now a small c
citizen and subject to the government, because of the declaration
you made when you signed these forms. As I said earlier there
are a multitude of benefits offered by the government. These
include all of the Social programs, being a registered voter,
having bank accounts, having insurance, working for government
created corporations, the benefit of police protection etc.. just
to name a few. What this means is that you no longer have the
same status as our forefathers. The Constitution before the
Fourteenth Amendment no longer applies to you. The only rights
you have are those granted to you by your king (government). Any
rights that are granted to Fourteenth Amendment citizens can be
taken away. For example, the Second Amendment, the right to bear
arms. Because of public policy this right is going to be taken
away to protect the tortfeasors (co-sureties for the national
debt). Have you noticed how the government has said that this is
a health issue? The bankers are losing to many co-sureties, and
the tax money they pay in. The bankers required all of these
entitlements and enacted these laws to protect their subjects and
to increase the amount of taxes being collected. The main reason
the guns are going to be collected is to remove any danger to the
government, when they declare martial law and totally suspend the
Constitution.

The incredible genius of this is that this was done with
your
approval and you paid for it. Were not taxes required to pay the
debts acquired by the United States on your behalf, if you are a
voter, which makes you a party to any decision that Congress
makes?
Were not these taxes paid by your labor, so are you not working
for
the bankers? Are you not subject to their whims through interest
rates and monetary policies set by them? The over-riding
question
is were you aware of this? True you've subjected yourselves
voluntarily, but were you aware of the bankers intent to enslave
you. Were you aware of the secret arrangements made between the
United States government past and present with the international
bankers.

The following is the definition of secret taken from Blacks
Law Dictionary:

"Concealed; hidden; not made public; particularly, in law,
kept from the knowledge or notice of persons liable to be
affected by the act, transaction, deed, or other thing spoken of.
Something known only to one or a few and kept from other."

Because you are a registered voter and receiving monetary
benefit from the government, which is provided by the bankers,
you are obligated to abide by any statute that Congress might
pass in favor of the bankers.

The money this country uses will be the down fall of our
monetary system. In other words because this fiat money has no
value other than the three cents it costs to produce it, you have
never paid for anything, and the bankers gave you limited
liability so you cannot be sued for this. The final beneficiary
for the continuing of these transactions (commerce), are the
bankers. For every fiat dollar the bankers print and are able to
get into circulation, they get ninety seven cents of real
property, plus interest. This is called a no interest contract.
What does this mean? As an example read the following:

Let's say you bought a home that you did not intend to live
in, for ten thousand dollars and the house was appraised for
eighty thousand dollars. You then purchased a insurance policy
for two dollars a month, that would protect you for the full
eighty thousand dollars. You would not have a interest in seeing
the policy continue. It would be in your interest for the house
to burn down, because you would make a profit of seventy thousand
dollars. This is a no-interest contract, some times called a
wager contract. (James Montgomery)

When you use federal reserve notes you are involved in a
silent contract between you and the bankers. The bankers are the
suppliers, the government and the United States citizens are the
receivers. Anyone around the world that has received this fiat
money for payment or is involved with the banking system's are
also receivers of this benefit. This fiat money creates
increased perpetual debt with its use, the bankers hidden
interest is for you and the government to never be able to pay
off your debt. They loan this money out with the understanding
that the debt can be paid off. This is impossible because you
cannot pay off a debt with fiat money which is discharging the
debt and passing it to someone else. Have you been reimbursed
for your labor when you are paid with fiat money? No. What do
you receive when you receive fiat money? Don't you receive a
debt note? A tax is required on the valueless money you were
paid for your labor, just as if you were paid real money. The
difference being you can't pay a debt (tax) with fiat money.
Your labor and your property are being transferred for the
payment of these taxes. Your labor is being required to pay a
tax for the use of money that has no value. So don't you go in
the hole every time you receive and accept fiat money for payment
for your labor? Sure you do, think about it, this is the most
ingenious scam ever devised. Just as soon as people start
refusing to accept the federal reserve notes the whole system
would crumble. It is only your faith in the security of the
dollar that gives it its buying power. The debt cannot be paid
off and the fact that it's in the bankers interest to loan out
more fiat money, because they receive real property in return,
the bankers will do anything to continue this fraud. When you no
longer have enough labor to satisfy the debt, your property is
then transferred through bankruptcy. This is a classic
no-interest contract, it is illegal and the bankers and anyone in
government that are involved should be jailed. What completes
this trap? The government has made it law, that the only money
that can be used is the fiat money the bankers print and
distribute. Thereby, you are being forced to be a party to a
silent contract where your consideration is based on coercion.
You might ask, do I have a remedy? You bet. Can you be
compelled to enter a contract? No. Can you be bound by a
contract where there is fraud involved? No. So what's your
remedy? Study these issues and study, study and study some more.
Then! Quit receiving voluntarily, government benefits that you
are not compelled (forced) to. Learn how to object to these
benefits when you are compelled by government to accept them,
thereby, reserving your common law right under God to be a
freeman and a freeholder of your property while maintaining
your Sui Juris status. Here is the definition of Sui Juris:

"Possessing all the rights to which a freeman is entitled;
not being under the power of another, as a slave, a minor, and
the like." (Bouviers Law Dictionary 1914 ed.)

What about the other parties in the transactions you have
been involved in? They accepted this fiat money as payment, so
no one has been wronged. Or have they? What about the real
property or services that have transferred, have these parties
received real value? No! Let's say in a hypothetical situation
that you sell a piece of land for one hundred thousand dollars
and you are paid one hundred thousand fiat dollars, you're happy,
but wrongfully so.
The money you've been paid is worth three cents on the dollar,
but on April 15 you will have to pay a tax based one hundred
thousand dollars. Your property has been stolen from you (with
your consent) and you now have to pay a tax of twenty five
percent, twenty five thousand dollars to the IRS, which is based
on the full amount, one hundred percent not the three percent
value you were paid for your land. You have exchanged one
hundred thousand dollars of real property for three thousand
dollars of paper debt money and accrued a debt of twenty five
thousand dollars that will be paid by your labor. So for selling
your property you are now in the hole twenty two thousand
dollars. You would say I still made seventy five thousand
dollars on the deal. Did you? Remember Congress has to borrow
every dollar that is in print, including your seventy five
thousand dollars. You have seventy five thousand dollars of debt
that your children will have to pay back and their children
etc... Also this money has no value and is supported only by the
faith of those that use it. Suppose right after you sold your
land the bankers told the American people the truth, that the
money has no value. Where would you be then? There is no
security in a money system that has no foundation.

Here's another example of how the debt cannot be paid off;
remember, the only money in existence is the money the bank has
created. Let's say the bank loaned out one thousand dollars to
the government and wants ten percent interest in return. Where
is the government going to get the ten percent of bank created
money to pay the interest on its loan? The bank didn't print
money in excess of the original loan that could be used free of
charge to pay the interest. The only method of paying the
interest is to borrow more money on the credit of the citizens of
the United States. This practice of borrowing money to pay
interest creates perpetual debt, that cannot be paid off,
Jefferson was right. Eventually the Bankers will have to
foreclose on America.

"...And to preserve their independence, we must not let our
rulers load us with perpetual debt. We must make our election
between economy and liberty or profusion and servitude. If we
run into such debts as that we must be taxed in our meat and in
our drink, in our necessaries and our comforts, in our labors and
our amusements, for our callings and our creeds, as the people of
England are, our people, like them, must come to labor sixteen
hours in the twenty-four, and give the earnings of fifteen of
these to the government for their debts and daily expenses; and
the sixteenth being insufficient to afford us bread, we must
live, as they now do, on oatmeal and potatoes; have not time to
think, no means of calling the mismanager's to account; but be
glad to obtain subsistence by hiring ourselves to rivet their
chains on the necks of our fellow sufferers..."37
(Thomas Jefferson)

The bankers have also created trillions of dollars with
bookkeeping entries, without printing any money. If you create a
trillion dollars in this manner, where is the trillion dollars
and the interest going to come from to pay for this bookkeeping
entry, since this money was never printed?

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37. THE MAKING OF AMERICA, p. 395
-----------------------------------------------------------------

The only way this debt can be paid off is by borrowing the money
which will be paid back by your labor and your property. Now,
the debt and interest has grown so great there is not enough land
or people producing labor to pay the national debt. It is
impossible to pay the national debt and the interest on the loan,
for the above reasons. Do you see how the wealth of this country
has been transferred to the bankers?

Thomas Jefferson and Sir Josiah Stamp, the former president
of the Bank of England, were right about the bankers and the use
of their money.

"If the American people ever allow the banks to control
issuance of their currency, first by inflation and then by
deflation, the banks and corporations that grow up around them
will deprive the people of all property until their children will
wake up homeless on the continent their fathers occupied."38
(Thomas Jefferson)

"The modern banking system manufactures money out of
nothing. The process is perhaps the most astounding piece of
sleight of hand that was ever invented. Banking was conceived in
inequity and born in sin...Bankers own the earth. Take it away
from them but leave them the power to create money, and, with a
flick of a pen, they will create enough money to buy it back
again...Take this great power away from them and all great
fortunes like mine will disappear, for then this would be a
better and happier world to live in...But, if you want to
continue to be the slaves of bankersand pay the cost of your own
slavery, then let bankers continue to create money and control
credit."39 (Sir Josiah Stamp)

"But from a financial standpoint we are at great risk, and
our banking system is at great risk. Just about three special
orders ago I placed in the Record statistics showing how the
leading banks of our country are heavily involved in super-scale
gambling that makes Las Vegas look like a backyard alley dice
game...Our principal banks, the top 20, are heavily involved.
The top seven or eight just absolutely are irretrievably
involved. One of those, for instance, is involved 1,750 percent
over its total capitalization structure...So once again, you get
individuals, like one, associated with others, like James Gold
Smith, who is a relative of the Rothschilds in London and who,
just a few years ago, was a matter of attention to us on the
committee because he was involved in some of the very

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38. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
39. FORMER PRESIDENT OF THE BANK OF ENGLAND
-----------------------------------------------------------------

heavy leveraged buy outs and attempts on leveraged buy outs such
as Goodyear in Ohio and which cost us a lot in family
disruptions, loss of jobs to many of our Americans, heavy
indebtedness of our corporate structure, where the private equal
to the amount of our Government debt, which is over $4 trillion,
the greatest ever in the history of mankind of any nation...It is
the same thing with financial transactions. The Federal Reserve
Open Market Committee, which works in secret, it does not even
keep minutes any more, and is making the life and death
determinations for the security and freedom of the American
public's standard of living, economic and financial freedom. If
we are nothing more than economic serfs, how can we boast?"40
(Congressman Gonzales)

President Eisenhower's Secretary of the Treasury Anderson in
an interview with U.S. News and World Report on August 31, 1959
said:
Question: Do you mean that banks, in buying Government
securities, do not lend out their customers' deposits? That they
create the money they use to buy the securities?
Answer (by Secretary Anderson): "That is correct. Banks are
different from other lending institutions. When a savings and
loan association, an insurance company, or a credit union makes a
loan, it lends the very dollar that its customers have previously
paid in. But when a bank makes a loan, it simply adds to the
borrower's deposit account in the bank by the amount of the loan.
The money is not taken from anyone else's deposit; it was not
previously paid in to the bank by anyone. It's new money,
created by the bank for the use of the borrower." "We are
completely dependent on the commercial Banks. Someone has to
borrow every dollar we have in circulation, cash or credit. If
the Banks create ample synthetic money we are prosperous; if not,
we starve. We are absolutely without a permanent money system.
When one gets a complete grasp of the picture, the tragic
absurdity of our hopeless position is almost incredible, but
there it is. It is the most important subject intelligent
persons can investigate and reflect upon. It is so important
that our present civilization may collapse unless it becomes
widely understood and the defects remedied soon."41 (Robert H.
Hemphill, Credit Manager of Federal Reserve Bank, Atlanta, Ga.)

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40. CHAIRMAN OF THE BANKING COMMITTEE, Augest 6, 1993 on the
floor of the congress, in SPECIAL ORDERS
41. THE MYSTERIES OF THE FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM, p. 3
-----------------------------------------------------------------

The only way the defeat of America could be accomplished is
with changing the laws, and having bought and paid for judges and
Congressmen to do this. The only thing they had to overcome were
the few Americans that were watching and the Constitution. The
last 217 years of this country, and going back to Adam, has been
a war with the principalities and powers in high places. Jesus'
Word makes it clear that the principalities and powers in high
places will be defeated and the governments of the world will
become Christ's Kingdom.

Freedom is a seed sown by God into the hearts of men, and
only by understanding God's purpose for freedom will the seed of
freedom grow. Brave men have fought for freedom because they
understood its purpose. The great men that shaped this country
realized the dream of freedom which gave birth to its purpose.
We have to overcome men that want to prosper from others
servitude and lack of knowledge.

Freedom begins and ends with Jesus Christ, once your spirit
is freed from sin the seed of freedom is planted. It then becomes
the will of man to free his body from the curse of slavery and to
become subject only to God Almighty as a tri-part creation,
spirit, soul, body, which fulfills God's purpose.

Evil seeks to obscure and eliminate the dream that defines
God's purpose for freedom, but a seed planted by God Almighty can
never be put asunder. The dream lives on in the hearts of men,
once awakened it is a force that the gates of hell shall not
prevail against. Only when freedom becomes your purpose and
drive will the desire for freedom spread to other patriots not
yet known.

The oppressors promise death, imprisonment, and financial
ruin, this cannot quench or destroy a seed planted by God. Once
you learn that there are men that want to enslave you through
deception and fraud, it is your responsibility and duty to free
yourself from the yoke of oppression. Once you have realized
your purpose, which is given to you as a gift by God Almighty,
you can then start to understand that it is your responsibility
to be free
and that this cannot be obtained without the divine hand of God
Almighty in operation in your life.

Only those of us that have the dream of freedom and operate
in its purpose, will regain our freedom and take back our county,
for the glory of God Almighty. Until God's Kingdom is
established on this earth, subdue and take dominion over the
earth as God commanded. (James Montgomery)

"Every man should remain in the condition in which he was
called. Were you a slave when you were called? Do not let that
trouble you; but if a chance of liberty should come, take it.
For the man who as a slave received the call to be a Christian is
the Lord's freedman, and, equally, the free man who received the
call is a slave in the service of Christ. You were bought at a
price; do not become slaves of men. Thus each one, my friends,
is to remain before God in the condition in which he received his
call." (1 Corinthians 7: verses 20-24 New English Bible)

JAMES FRANKLIN MONTGOMERY

SUI JURIS











GENERAL REFERENCES



OUR CROWD - STEPHEN BIRMINGHAM, (1967) (Mr. Birmingham is a
Jewish author, this book is non-fiction and is an authorized
autobiography, in which he obtained his information from the
principles, Rothchilds etc..via letters and by personal
interview.)
THE MYSTERIES OF THE FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM - JERRY VOORHIS,
(1986)
PIECES OF EIGHT - EDWIN VIEIRA JR., (1983)
MIRACLE ON MAIN STREET - F. TUPPER SAUSSY, (1982)
A DECLARATION OF FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCE - JOHN GRANDBOUCHE,
(1983)
PIED PIPERS OF BABYLON - VEIL K. SPEER, (1985)
THE AMERICAN COVENANT - MARSHALL FOSTER, (1983)
BASHED BY THE BANKERS - BYRAN DALE, (1988)
A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES - T. HARRY WILLAMS, (1962)
THE FEDERAL UNION - JOHN D. HICKS, (1957)
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN NATION - JOHN A. GARRATY, (1973)
WORDS THAT MADE AMERICAN HISTORY - RICHARD N. CURRENT, (1972)
THE MAKING OF AMERICA - W. CLEON SKOUSEN, (1985)

LEGAL REFERENCES

BLACKS LAW DICTIONARY - WEST, 4th ed. (1891), 5th ed. (1990)
BOUVIER'S LAW DICTIONARY - RAWLE'S, (1914)
WORDS AND PHRASES - WEST, (1957)
BLACKSTONE'S COMMENTARIES - BLACKSTONE, (1765)
NOAH WEBSTER'S 1828 DICTIONARY - NOAH WEBSTER, (1828)
INVISIBLE CONTRACTS - GEORGE MERCIER, (1985)